Unit 3 - Global resource consumption and security

SDG 12: Responsible Production and Consumption

3.1 Population and Economic Development Patterns

The emergence of the global middle class:

Many countries have seen middle-class growth due to:

Capital accumulation (e.g., housing, savings) boosts economic growth through domestic demand.
Export revenue growth from expanding secondary and tertiary industries like manufacturing.
China’s reforms, including special economic zones and trade liberalisation, attracted foreign investment and created jobs.

Social Consequences of the Rising Global Middle Class:

Education:
- Middle-class students attain higher education levels due to greater parental investment and involvement.
- Leads to a more educated, economically active population in the future.
Health:
- Higher incomes correlate with longer life expectancy, reducing healthcare pressure.
- Lower crime rates due to stable and higher disposable incomes.
Government Services:
- A more educated middle class demands better government services.
- Middle-class citizens often drive social activism.

Influence of Globalisation on Middle-Class Growth:

Trade: Importing/exporting goods and services drives employment, GDP, and income growth.
International Organisations: WTO membership expands market access.
Capital Movement: Foreign investment in manufacturing boosts employment and average incomes.
Technology Expansion: Technology growth creates jobs in the service industry (e.g., call centres) and enables efficient global data exchange.

Ecological footprint: the amount of biologically productive land and water required to produce the resources consumed and absorb human waste.

Carbon vs. Ecological Footprint:

Carbon Footprint: Measures greenhouse gas emissions from human activities (in tons of CO₂ equivalent).
Ecological Footprint: This covers a broader range of activities, including waste, and is measured in the global hectares of productive land and water needed to replace consumed resources.

Reasons for Global Ecological Footprint Increase Despite Local Reductions:

Individual Actions: Lifestyle changes, like adopting solar energy, can reduce local footprints.
Government Policies: Initiatives like solar panel subsidies lower national footprints.
Global Trends: Population growth and rising middle-class consumption in populous countries (e.g., BRIC nations) significantly impact the global ecological footprint, outweighing local reductions.

Primary sources of freshwater:

Rivers
Aquifers
Wetlands

Physical water scarcity: when the water extraction and consumption is greater than the rate at which the water source is recharged.

Economic water scarcity: the human barriers faced by individuals and societies when trying to access water

Embedded (virtual) water: the water used in producing and transporting a good.

Factors Driving Water Scarcity:

Population Growth: Higher water demand.
Industrial Growth: Increased water use in production processes.
Rising Middle-Class Consumption: Greater demand for water-intensive consumer goods.
Commercial Arable Farming: Irrigation schemes extract water from rivers and aquifers.
Increased Meat Consumption: Pastoral farming requires significant water resources.

Green water: the amount of rainfall consumed (i.e. the soil moisture used by vegetation).

Blue water: the amount of freshwater on the surface or underground (i.e. lakes).

Grey water: the water used for domestic activities (i.e. water polluted by pesticides from agriculture and wastewater from industry, business and housing).

Effects of Globalisation on Water Consumption:

Changing Consumption Patterns: Higher disposable incomes drive demand for water-dependent goods and energy sources like hydroelectric or nuclear power.
Expanded Transportation Networks: Increased global trade raises water use in shipping and logistics.
Nutrient Transition: Wealthier diets with more meat demand significantly more water for production.
Water Scarcity Redistribution: Countries facing water scarcity (e.g., Gulf states) may outsource agriculture, increasing water consumption in host countries like Egypt.

Crop yield: the output from agricultural production (kg/ha)

The hunger paradox: Sufficient food is produced for the current world population. The issue is ensuring that the world's undernourished population can access it.

Recent Increases in Food Production:

Fertilisers and Pesticides: Boosted crop yields with organic and chemical fertilisers and pest control.
Seed Innovation: Drought- and pest-resistant seeds developed for higher yields.
Mechanisation: Advanced machinery for planting and harvesting.
Selective Breeding: Healthier animals are less prone to diseases.
Trade Reform: Reduced trade barriers opened new markets, incentivising production.

Reasons for Changing Diets:

Environmental Awareness: Growing concerns about pastoral farming's environmental impact have led to a shift toward plant-based diets, which reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Nutrient Transition: Higher disposable income allows people to afford more meat in their diets.

Food Consumption's Effect on Ecological Footprints:

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Agriculture contributes 10-12% of global emissions.
Soil and Water Contamination: Nitrates and phosphates from fertilisers and pesticides pollute soil and water sources.
Land and Water Use: Agricultural and non-agricultural land use, along with carbon production, requires significant resources, as shown in the chart below.

Hydrocarbon: an organic compound comprising two carbon elements and one hydrogen element. E.g. Methane

OPEC: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

How OPEC Influences National Energy Policies:

Coordinated Petroleum Policies: OPEC members align their policies to secure reliable income from production and export.
Stable Supply: Countries reliant on OPEC may receive oil at a fair price, reducing the incentive to seek alternative energy sources.
Volatility and Cost: Disruptions in OPEC member countries may raise oil costs, prompting countries to explore alternative suppliers or energy sources.
Loss of Sovereignty: Dependence on OPEC oil can limit political autonomy, as countries may align with OPEC interests to maintain energy security.

Unconventional oil and gas: oil and gas that traditional processes like the natural pressure of wells, pumping, or compression operations could access. E.g. Fracking

Renewable energy sources:

Solar power.
Wind power.
Tidal power.
Firewood.
Hydroelectric power.

Note: Although nuclear power does not cause air pollution, it is not always considered renewable. As a fuel source, Uranium is used faster than underground resources will replenish.

Arguments for Nuclear Power:

Energy Efficiency: A small amount of uranium produces the same power as larger amounts of coal, gas, or oil.
Uranium Supply: Extensive uranium supplies enable long-term energy production.
Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power produces minimal water vapour emissions.
Low Operational Costs: Nuclear power stations have relatively low operational expenses.

Arguments Against Nuclear Power:

Nuclear Weapons Risk: Enriched uranium can be used to develop nuclear weapons.
Potential Hazards: Malfunctions in nuclear plants can devastate surrounding areas.
Waste Storage: Storing nuclear waste presents challenges and high costs.
High Construction Costs: Nuclear power stations are expensive to build.

Why Some Countries Are Switching to Renewable Energy:

Energy Independence: Renewable energy reduces dependence on fossil fuel imports.
Favorable Conditions: Countries with abundant sunlight, for example, can generate solar power efficiently.
Commitment to Emissions Reduction: International agreements, like the Paris COP21, motivate a shift to renewables.
Cost Savings: Renewable energy can offer long-term cost savings.
Public Opinion: Environmental concerns may drive governments to invest in renewable energy sources.

3.2: Impacts of changing trends in resource consumption

Nexus: the connections between two or more components within a system (e.g. the water-food-energy nexus)

Why the Water-Food-Energy Nexus is a System:

System Definition: It consists of interconnected components that influence one another.
Inputs, Processes, Outputs: The nexus involves inputs (e.g., resources), processes (e.g., production and consumption), and outputs (e.g., energy, food, water, waste).
Processes: The interactions in producing and consuming water, food, and energy affect the system's outcomes.
Outputs: The nexus can be circular (reducing waste and recycling) or linear (creating waste). Outputs include the quantities of energy, food, and water produced or profits generated.
Inputs: Inputs, such as climate change impacts, can alter the system's functioning and affect industrial production.

Why is freshwater needed to create energy:

used in hydroelectric power schemes
used in thermal power stations to create steam

Freshwater Use in Extracting Unconventional Oil and Gas:

Fracking Process: Explosives fracture fossil-fuel-bearing rock formations, followed by injecting a mixture of water, chemicals, and sand at high pressure to extract oil and gas.

Impact on Water Security:

Water-Intensive Process: Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) uses millions of gallons of fluid per well, 90% of which is water, which impacts water availability.

Food security: when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for a healthy life.

Causes of Food Insecurity:

Crop Failure: Caused by pests or drought due to lack of rainfall.
Lack of Food Surplus: Subsistence farmers may struggle to create food surpluses due to poverty and past crop failures.
Conflict: War or instability makes farming dangerous and hinders food aid from reaching those in need.
Access: Some communities live in food deserts with limited access to fresh produce, such as through supermarkets.
Low Income: High food costs may limit the quantity and quality of food low-income individuals can afford.

The development of biofuels effect on food security:

Reduces food supplies and increases food prices, thereby worsening food insecurity.

How Diet Changes Can Reduce Water Consumption:

Switching to Plant-Based Diets: Switching from a meat-based to a vegetarian or vegan diet drastically reduces water usage. A vegan diet requires 300 gallons of water compared to 4,000 gallons for a meat-based diet.
Reducing Caloric Intake: Consuming fewer calories decreases the water needed for food production.

Energy pathway: a country's route to source the energy it requires.

Geopolitics and energy power:

Geopolitics examines how countries exert power over others.
Countries and organisations with fossil fuel reserves hold significant influence, as they can affect the political decisions of energy-dependent nations.

How Climate Change Affects the Food-Water-Energy Nexus:

Reduced Rainfall: Lower rainfall and soil water levels can decrease crop survival, reduce food supply, and increase food insecurity.
Renewable Energy Investment: Awareness of fossil fuels’ environmental impacts may lead to more investment in renewable energy. This could reduce water usage, helping preserve water for other sectors like agriculture and food production.

Benefits of Electronic Waste for Receiving Countries:

Increased Income (Exports): Discarded electronics can be recycled for raw materials and exported.
Increased Income (Domestic Sales): Repaired electronics can be sold domestically.
Improved Access to IT Equipment: Greater availability of affordable electronics.

Harmful Effects of Electronic Waste on Receiving Countries:

Environmental Contamination: Toxic substances s can leach into soil and water, causing long-term environmental damage.
Health Risks to Local Communities: Informal recycling methods like burning e-waste release harmful fumes, leading to respiratory and neurological issues.
Poor Working Conditions: Workers often lack protective gear and work in unsafe environments. Child labour is prevalent, raising human rights concerns.

How Climate Change Could Harm the Water-Food-Energy Nexus:

Energy Production: Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns in places like the USA will strain hydroelectric power generation and biofuel cultivation. Increased electricity demand will also result from the need for cooling systems.
Water Production: Increased evaporation rates from surface water will reduce water availability for residential, industrial, and agricultural use.
Food Production: More frequent and severe droughts will reduce crop yields, threatening food security.

How Climate Change Could Benefit the Water-Food-Energy Nexus:

Food Production: Warmer temperatures may allow agriculture in regions previously too cold for crop cultivation, such as northern Canada and Russia.
Water Consumption: Migration to formerly inhospitable cold areas may reduce pressure on water supplies in other regions.
Energy Production: Melting ice caps could open up new reserves for energy extraction, easing pressure on existing reserves.

3.3 Resource Stewardship

Divergent thinking: when there are multiple perspectives on a situation. It requires creativity and an ability to be open-minded.

Divergent Thinking in the Context of Resource Consumption and Population:

Pessimistic View: Focuses on environmental degradation and resource insecurity caused by population growth and high consumption rates.
Optimistic View: Emphasizes innovation and technological advancements as solutions to address resource insecurity and environmental challenges.

Resources: a useful or valuable possession or quality of a country, organisation, or person.

Demographic Changes Affecting Resource Consumption:

Migration: The movement of people away from a region can reduce local resource consumption, easing pressure on those resources.
Natural Increase: Changes in the Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and Crude Death Rate (CDR) affect population size, increasing or decreasing resource consumption.

Optimistic and Pessimistic Views on Population Growth and Resource Consumption Trends:

Optimistic View: Believes that innovation and technological advancements will solve resource challenges, providing enough resources for the growing global population in the future.
Pessimistic View: Warns that current rates of population growth, resource consumption, and environmental degradation will lead to resource shortages, making it difficult to sustain the world’s population in the future.

The Neo-Malthusian View:

Believes that the world's population is consuming resources at an unsustainable rate, leading to a future crisis.
Argues that the current methods of resource production cause environmental degradation, further hindering sustainability.
Advocates for controlling population growth through anti-natalist policies.

The Boserupian View:

Offers an optimistic perspective on population growth and resource consumption.
Suggests that innovation will provide solutions to ensure a sufficient food supply for future generations.
Proposes that the threat of mass starvation will motivate improvements in food production methods, increasing the available food supply.

Why a Second Green Revolution May Be Needed in the Future:

The global population is expected to increase by 2 billion by 2050, leading to a higher demand for food.
Climate change is expected to negatively impact food production systems through heat, drought, and extreme weather events, making a second Green Revolution necessary to adapt and meet growing food needs.

Resource stewardship: the use of resources to be available sufficiently for future generations.

The Environmental Kuznets Curve: a model that illustrates that, as a country develops economically, environmental degradation will eventually decrease.

Sustainable Development:

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
It is closely linked to resource stewardship, as both focus on responsibly managing resources today to ensure they remain available for future generations.

Drip Irrigation as an Example of Resource Stewardship:

Drip irrigation improves water efficiency in agriculture by delivering water directly to the roots of plants, reducing waste and conserving water.

Arguments For:

Drip irrigation can reduce water use by up to 90%.

Arguments Against:

Some research suggests drip irrigation may increase water consumption as plants absorb all applied water, potentially requiring additional watering.
Unlike flood irrigation, drip irrigation does not contribute to groundwater recharge.

Circular Economy:

It focuses on using resources sustainably, shifting from linear to circular models and reducing reliance on finite materials for growth.

Three Principles:

Removing Waste and Pollution
Keeping Products and Materials in Use
Regenerating Natural Systems

Linear vs Circular Systems:

Linear System:
- Unsustainable, relying on the extraction of new resources until depletion.
- Used resources are discarded, leading to waste and environmental degradation.
Circular Economy:
- Sustainable, focusing on reusing and recycling materials to reduce the need for new resource extraction.
- Minimises waste, helping preserve both the environment and resources.

Stakeholders in the Circular Economy:

Corporations: Restructure operations to align with circular economy principles, e.g., recycling products.
Governments: Implement policies to reduce emissions and conserve resources (e.g., Finland).
Individuals: Choose products from circular rather than linear systems.
Civil Society Organisations: Advise companies on adopting circular economy strategies (e.g., Ellen MacArthur Foundation).

Cascading: the repurposing of an item for it to be used for another objective. It retains the item's value after an initial use.

Challenges Facing the Circular Economy:

Recycling:
- Not all materials are recyclable (e.g., 30% non-recyclable in the EU).
- Recycling can be energy-intensive and resource-consuming.
Shared Economy:
- Dominated by large corporations, leading to poor working conditions (e.g., car-sharing drivers).
- Increased rents as locals rent out properties to tourists.
Renewable Energy:
- Renewable energy sites depend on non-renewable energy for construction.
- Some renewable products, like solar panels, are hard to recycle.
Growth vs. System:
- Demand for products often outpaces material recycling and reuse capabilities.

Economic Growth vs. SDGs

Conflicts:

Economic growth boosts consumerism, leading to resource depletion, especially with the rise of a global middle class.
Infrastructure development in emerging countries can harm SDGs, e.g., greenhouse gas emissions from concrete production undermine SDG 13 (Climate Action).

No Conflict:

Economic growth lifts populations from poverty, aiding SDG 1 (No Poverty). For example, global poverty decreased from 10% in 2015 to 8.6% in 2018.
However, slow economic growth in regions like sub-Saharan Africa means SDG 1 is still unmet, with over 30% of workers living below $1.90/day in 2019. Sustainable growth with resource-efficient policies can help achieve SDGs like SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy).